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The Samanid dynasty, also known as the Samanid Empire, or simply Samanids (819–999), was a Sunni Persian Empire in Central Asia, named after its founder Saman Khuda, a landowner from Balkh, who converted to Islam despite being from Zoroastrian nobility.<br/><br/> It was a native Persian dynasty in Greater Iran and Central Asia after the collapse of the Sassanid Persian empire caused by the Arab conquest.<br/><br/> Isma'il Muntasir attempted to resurrect the Samanid state in Transoxiana and eastern Iran (1000–1005). He was the son of Nuh II.
Yamin-ud-Dawla Abul-Qasim Mahmud ibn Sebuktegin, more commonly known as Mahmud of Ghazni (2 November 971 CE – 30 April 1030 CE), also known as Mahmūd-i Zābulī, was the most prominent ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire. He conquered the eastern Iranian lands and the northwestern Indian subcontinent (modern Afghanistan and Pakistan) between 997 and his death in 1030. Mahmud turned the former provincial city of Ghazni into the wealthy capital of an extensive empire which covered most of today's Afghanistan, eastern Iran, and Pakistan.<br/><br/> Al-Qadir (947 – 29 November 1031) was the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad from 991 to 1031.
Jonah or Jonas (Arabic: Yunus) is the name given in the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh/Old Testament) to a prophet of the northern kingdom of Israel in about the 8th century BCE. He is the eponymous central character in the Book of Jonah, famous for being swallowed by a fish or a whale, depending on translation.<br/><br/> The biblical story of Jonah is repeated, with a few notable differences, in the Qur'an.
The Banu Qaynuqa (also spelled Banu Kainuka, Banu Kaynuka, Banu Qainuqa, Banu Qaynuqa) was one of the three main Jewish tribes living in 7th century Medina, now in Saudi Arabia. In 624 they were expelled by the Prophet Muhammad for breaking the treaty known as the Constitution of Medina.
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hulegu, Hulegu or Halaku (c. 1217 – 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Southwest Asia. Son of Tolui and the Kerait princess Sorghaghtani Beki, he was a grandson of Genghis Khan, and the brother of Arik Boke, Mongke Khan and Kublai Khan.<br/><br/> Hulagu's army greatly expanded the southwestern portion of the Mongol Empire, founding the Ilkhanate of Persia, a precursor to the eventual Safavid dynasty, and then the modern state of Iran.
David was, according to the Books of Samuel, the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel, and according to the New Testament, an ancestor of Jesus. His life is conventionally dated to c. 1040–970 BCE, his reign over Judah c. 1010–970 BCE.
Jeremiah (Hebrew: Yirmeyahu, Arabic: Iاrmiya‎), also called the 'Weeping prophet', was one of the major prophets of the Hebrew Bible (Christian Old Testament).<br/><br/> Jeremiah is traditionally credited with authoring the Book of Jeremiah, 1 Kings, 2 Kings and the Book of Lamentations, with the assistance and under the editorship of Baruch ben Neriah, his scribe and disciple.
The Battle of Badr, fought on Tuesday, 13 March 624 CE (17 Ramadan, 2 AH in the Islamic calendar) in the Hejaz region of western Arabia (present-day Saudi Arabia), was a key battle in the early days of Islam and a turning point in Muhammad's struggle with his opponents among the Quraish in Mecca.<br/><br/> The battle has been passed down in Islamic history as a decisive victory attributable to divine intervention, or by secular sources to the strategic genius of Muhammad. It is one of the few battles specifically mentioned in the Quran. Most contemporary knowledge of the battle at Badr comes from traditional Islamic accounts, both hadiths and biographies of Muhammad, recorded in written form some time after the battle.
Birth of the Prophet Muhammad. Miniature illustration on vellum from the book Jami' at-Tawarikh (literally 'Compendium of Chronicles' but often referred to as 'The Universal History or History of the World'), by Rashid al-Din, Tabriz, Persia, 1307 CE, now in the collection of the Edinburgh University Library, Scotland.<br/><br/> Representations of the Prophet Muhammad are controversial, and generally forbidden in Sunni Islam (especially Hanafiyya, Wahabi, Salafiyya). Shia Islam and some other branches of Sunni Islam (Hanbali, Maliki, Shafi'i) are generally more tolerant of such representational images, but even so the Prophet's features are generally veiled or concealed by flames as a mark of deep respect.
After the Islamic conquest Sistan became a province first of the Umayyad and then of the Abbasid Caliphates. In the 860s, the Saffarid dynasty emerged in Sistan and proceeded to conquer most of the Islamic East, until it was checked by the Samanids in 900.<br/><br/> After the Samanids took the province from the Saffarids, it briefly returned to Abbasid control, but in 917 the governor Abu Yazid Khalid made himself independent. He was followed by a series of emirs with brief reigns until 923, when Ahmad ibn Muhammad restored Saffarid rule in Sistan. After his death in 963, Sistan was ruled by his son Khalaf ibn Ahmad until 1002, when Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Sistan, ending the Saffarid dynasty.<br/><br/> A year later, Sistan revolted. In response, Mahmud brought an army to suppress the revolt. Mahmud's Hindu troops sacked the mosque of Zarang massacring the Muslims inside.
The Seljuq Empire (1037-1194) extended from the Hindu Kush in Pakistan to eastern Anatolia and from Central Asia to the Persian Gulf. After much political and military strife, Berkyaruq ibn Malikshah became the Seljuq sultan in 1093, reigning until 1105. Here he sits on a blue cushion, which is decorated with gold arabesques and placed on an elaborate Chinese-style throne, wearing a Seljuq crown.<br/><br/> A second crown with ribbons extending from it hangs above his head, an element from Sassanian tradition. Five courtiers are to the left of the Sultan, two kneeling, one sitting and two standing. They exhibit a variety of headwear, including a turban, double-brimmed hats, a beehive hat and the typical Mongol cap. To the right of the sultan, a scribe wearing a turban kneels with his writing materials, which include an Islamic type pen-box, beside him.
Uj ibn Anaq is a giant, portrayed by some clerics although not mentioned in the Quran. The origins of this character lay in Jewish lore and the Old Testament, e.g. King Og. He takes his ‘surname’ from his mother Anaq who begat him after an incestuous affair<br/><br/> Famous and much painted episodes include his fight with the prophet Moses (Musa), and his fishing and frying of whales, while he stands just about knee-deep in the ocean.
Alamut (Persian: الموت, transliterated Alamūt) was a mountain fortress located in the South Caspian province of Daylam near the Rudbar region in Iran, approximately 100 kilometres (60 mi) from present-day Tehran, Iran. The name means 'Eagle’s Nest'.<br/><br/> Under the leadership of Hasan-i Sabbah, Alamut became the site of intense activity for the Shi’a Nizari Ismaili Muslims, along with a smaller subgroup known as the Assassins, between 1090 and 1256 AD. During the medieval period, the castle functioned as the major stronghold of the Nizari Ismaili state. In 1256, Ismaili control of the fortress was lost to the invading Mongols and its famous library holdings were destroyed when the castle’s library was condemned to be burned by ‘Ata-Malik Juwayni, a servant of the Mongol court. Sources on the history and thought of the Ismailis in this period are therefore lacking and the majority extant are written by their detractors.<br/><br/> After the Mongol destruction, the castle was of only regional significance, passing through the hands of various local powers. Today, it lies in ruins, but because of its historical significance, it is being developed by the Iranian government as a tourist destination.
Enthronement of a Mongol ruler. Illustration from Rashid-al-Din's Jami' at-tawarih, 1st quarter of 14th century.
Enthronement of a Mongol ruler. Left part of a double-page illustration of Rashid-al-Din's Jami' at-tawarih, 1st quarter of 14th century.
Enthronement of a Mongol ruler. Right part of a double-page illustration of Rashid-al-Din's Jami' at-tawarih, 1st quarter of 14th century.
Enthronement of a Mongol ruler. Right part of a double-page illustration of Rashid-al-Din's Jami' at-tawarih, 1st quarter of 14th century. Some faces have been defaced, no doubt by Muslim iconoclasts.
Enthronement of a Mongol ruler. Left part of a double-page illustration of Rashid-al-Din's Jami' at-tawarih, 1st quarter of 14th century. Some faces have been defaced, no doubt by Muslim iconoclasts.
Ghazan Khan studying the Koran in a tented mosque. Illustration of Rashid-ad-Din's Jami' at-tawarih. Tabriz, 1st quarter of 14th century. Water colours on paper. The inscription above the arch on the left, which is either the entrance or the Mihrab, reads 'God is Great', and the two tent poles are topped with finials reading 'Allah' in Arabic.
The Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh, (Mongolian: Судрын чуулган, Sudar-yn Chuulgan; Arabic: جامع التواريخ ‎; Persian: جامع‌التواریخ ), ('Compendium of Chronicles') or Universal History is an Iranian work of literature and history written by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani at the start of the 14th century.
Ghazan Khan with his wife Kokachin at court, from a 13th century Mongolian painting. Kokachin was a 13th century Mongol princess from the Yuan dynasty in China, belonging to the Mongol Bayaut tribe. In 1291, she was betrothed to the Ilkhanate khan Arghun by the Mongol Great Khan Kublai. This followed a request by Arghun to his grand-uncle Kublai to send him a relative of his dead wife, and Kublai chose the 17-year-old Kökötchin ('Blue, or Celestial, Lady').<br/><br/> Kublai, from his capital of Khanbaliq (the Khan's city, modern day Beijing) entrusted Marco Polo with his last duty, to escort princess Kökechin to Arghun. The party traveled by sea, departing from the southern port city of Quanzhou in the spring of 1291. There were 14 big ships in all, and each had 4 masts and 12 sails. They set out from Quanzhou, sailing to Sumatra, and then to Persia, via Sri Lanka and India (where his visits included Mylapore, Madurai and Alleppey, which he nicknamed Venice of the East). They arrived around 1293. Arghun had died in the meantime however, and Kökötchin married Arghun's son Ghazan. She became his principal wife.
Ghazan Khan with his wife Kokachin at court, from a 13th century Mongolian painting. Kokachin was a 13th century Mongol princess from the Yuan dynasty in China, belonging to the Mongol Bayaut tribe. In 1291, she was betrothed to the Ilkhanate khan Arghun by the Mongol Great Khan Kublai. This followed a request by Arghun to his grand-uncle Kublai to send him a relative of his dead wife, and Kublai chose the 17-year-old Kökötchin ('Blue, or Celestial, Lady').<br/><br/> Kublai, from his capital of Khanbaliq (the Khan's city, modern day Beijing) entrusted Marco Polo with his last duty, to escort princess Kökechin to Arghun. The party traveled by sea, departing from the southern port city of Quanzhou in the spring of 1291. There were 14 big ships in all, and each had 4 masts and 12 sails. They set out from Quanzhou, sailing to Sumatra, and then to Persia, via Sri Lanka and India (where his visits included Mylapore, Madurai and Alleppey, which he nicknamed Venice of the East). They arrived around 1293. Arghun had died in the meantime however, and Kökötchin married Arghun's son Ghazan. She became his principal wife.
Tolui Khan with his wife Sorghaghtani. From Rashid al-Din, Jami al-Tawarikh, early 14th century.<br/><br/> Tolui, also rendered Toluy, Tului or Tolui Khan (1192–1232) was the youngest son of Genghis Khan by Borte. His ulus, or territorial inheritance, at his father's death in 1227 was the homelands in Mongolia, and it was he who served as civil administrator in the time it took to confirm Ogodei as second Khagan of the Mongol Empire (1206–1368). Before that, he had served with distinction in the campaigns against the Jin Dynasty, the Xi Xia and the Khwarezmid Empire, where he was instrumental in the capture and massacre at Merv and Nishapur. He is a direct ancestor of most of the Emperors of Mongolia.
Sorghaghtani Beki or Bekhi, also written Sorkaktani, Sorkhokhtani, Sorkhogtani, Siyurkuktiti (c. 1198-1252), a Kereyid princess of the Nestorian Christian faith and daughter-in-law of Temujin (later known as Genghis Khan), was one of the most powerful and competent women in the Mongol Empire. Married to Tolui, Genghis' youngest son, she raised her sons to be leaders, and maneuvered the family politics so that all four of her sons, Mongke Khan, Hulagu Khan, Ariq Boke, and Kublai Khan, were to inherit the legacy of their grandfather. As a moving spirit behind the Mongol Empire, Sorghaghtani is responsible for much of the trade openings and intellectual exchange made possible by this, the largest contiguous empire in world history. As such, she may count among the most influential women in world history.
The coronation of Ogodei Khan in 1229, from Rashid al-Din, early 14th century.
Mahmud Ghazan (1271–1304) was the seventh ruler of the Mongol Empire's Ilkhanate division in modern-day Iran from 1295 to 1304. He was the son of Arghun and Quthluq Khatun, continuing a line of rulers who were direct descendants of Genghis Khan. Considered the most prominent of the Ilkhans, he is best known for making a political conversion to Islam in 1295 when he took the throne, marking a turning point for the dominant religion of Mongols in Central Asia. His principal wife was Kokechin, a Mongol princess sent by Kublai Khan, and escorted from the Mongol capital to the Ilkhanate by Marco Polo.
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü, Hulegu or Halaku (c. 1217 – 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Southwest Asia. Son of Tolui and the Kerait princess Sorghaghtani Beki, he was a grandson of Genghis Khan, and the brother of Arik Boke, Möngke Khan and Kublai Khan. Hulagu's army greatly expanded the southwestern portion of the Mongol Empire, founding the Ilkhanate of Persia, a precursor to the eventual Safavid dynasty, and then the modern state of Iran.<br/><br/> Doquz Khatun (also spelled Dokuz Khatun) was a Turkic Kerait princess of the 13th century, who was married to the Mongol ruler Hulagu. Their son Abaqa succeeded Hulagu upon his death. She was known to accompany Hulagu on campaigns. At the Sack of Baghdad in 1258, the Mongols massacred tens of thousands of inhabitants, but by the order of Doquz, the Christians were spared. Doquz Khatun was a Nestorian Christian, and is often mentioned as a great benefactor of the Christian faith. When Mongol envoys were sent to Europe, they also tried to use Doquz's Christianity to advantage, by claiming that Mongol princesses such as Doquz and Sorghaghtani Beki were daughters of the legendary Prester John. She died in 1265, the same year as her husband.